Claes Annerstedt

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Title: The physical education teachers and the physical education subject. Development, aims, competency ­ a didactical perspective /Idrottslärarna och idrottsämnet. Utveckling, mål, kompetens - ett didaktiskt perspektiv/
Language: Swedish
Keywords: Physical education, didactics, historical development, phenomenography, aims, competency, teacher education, professionalization
Göteborg: Acta Univertsitatis Gothoburgensis, 1991
ISBN: 91-7346-241-1

Email: Claes Annerstedt

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The aims of this study are to describe and analyze the historical development of physical education and to study the existing conceptions concerning competency of physical education teachers and how physical education is currently beeing legitimatized as a compulsory subject in the Swedish schools. The results of the investigation are compared to those found by other researchers in the field and collectively considered against a backcloth of contemporary teacher education in physical education. It is hoped that this didactical study can in some way contribute toward developing a scientific research foundation for the subject, toward new educational models for physical education in schools and contributing knowledge of significance for teacher education in the future.

The dissertation is divided into four parts. The first part consists of an introduction to the field of didactics and deals with the question of what is meant by the term in Sweden. Comparisons are made to similar developments in the (former) German Federal Republic.
In the second part the historical development of physical education is analyzed carefully and three principle questions are primarily focused:

• Why has physical education become a compulsory subject?
  
• What ought the content of physical education be?
  
• How should physical education be taught?

In the third part previous research is presented and analyzed, and my own empirical study, which focuses on how the subject is and can be legitimatized as a compulsory subject and what physical educator competency may comprise, is presented. In the fourth part the findings of the investigation are discussed and a new field of research that can possibly constitute a future scientific base both for the school subject and for teacher education is outlined.

During the 1980's the concept of "didactics" was reintroduced into the education debate in Sweden. The term had more or less disappeared from such debate since about the turn of the century. The concept of "didactics" can be regarded as a synthesis of three components which when considered separately only give necessary but not sufficient conditions for the didactical field. These components being subject theory, methods and pedagogy. Research in didactics should be regarded as a distinct part of educational research. Its fundamental questions regard the "what" and "how" of educational exchanges and assume, at the same time, a more general "why-question". The latter question of "why" can be regarded either as separate from or integrated with the former two, in what can be respectively called Anglo-Saxon or continental perspectives. It is also possible to separate two different levels of didactics research. On the one hand there is a kind of systems analysis ­ for example general curriculum theory ­ and on the other, at a classroom level, we can for example ask questions about how the individual teacher selects the content of the subject.

Very little research has been done on physical education in Sweden and almost no theories or models for the teaching of physical education have been presented during recent decades. When studying didactical theories about physical education it is therefore necessary to analyze the development that has taken place in (what was formerly) the Federal Republic of Germany. Research within the didactics field have been intensely pursued there for many decades and a number of attempts to apply general educational-theoretical ("bildungstheoretische didaktik"), information-theoretical ("informationstheoretische didaktik") and teaching-theoretical models ("unterrichtstheoretische didaktik"), even in the field of sports didactics, have been made.

In Sweden, just as in Germany, the dividing line in sports didactics currently seems to be between those who represent a more instrumental, technical and materialistic view of the subject on the one hand and those who stand for a more reflective, social and functionalist view on the other. The former argue that the school subject should more or less copy the sports performed in sports clubs during leisure time, whilst the latter argue that clear differences exist between the aims of physical education in school and the aims of sports clubs and that this implies that physical education in school must be different.

The Development of Physical Education
Considerations of the historical development of physical education begin with an appraisal of Plato's pedagogical system in Classical Greece and Vittorino da Feltre's views on physical education during the Italian Renaissance. However, it is only much later ­ during the late 1700's and at the beginning of the nineteenth century ­ a livening up period in educational debate, that physical education of different types were recommended in most of the pedagogical programs that were put forward. John Locke, and later Jean Jacques Rousseau, were the first to really point at the shortcomings, as far as education was concerned, of disregarding the physical side of development. They both prefered a more "natural method" of education, that would include a less sedentary life and more play and physical activity outdoors. Their recommendations for educational change were intended to make boys ­ they both talked about the education of boys ­ healthier, stronger and more harmonious.

In Germany and Switzerland people tried to put their views ­ and especially Rousseau's views ­ into practice. The philanthropical reform-movement wished to give the school a more humane quality. Something which they felt could be achieved through emphasizing practical subjects and physical education and also through changing teaching methods. The importance of motivation in learning was emphasized and they wished to have less compulsion and flogging and more free play and voluntary activities. In Germany it was Johann Bernhard Basedow and Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths who were pioneers for the physical education introduced in this vein. The latter's wish was also to formulate a program of physical education that was based on the advances made in the natural sciences. GutsMuths tried to divide exercises according to their main known physiological effects and he clearly stated why they were included in his program, what effect they had and how they should be performed. Two other early German physical educators who published methodological literature and who developed their own programs in physical education, were Anton Vieth and Adolf Spiess.

In Switzerland Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi became spokesman for the ideas presented by Rousseau. However, his aim was to start an educational program for all children. Pestalozzi also emphasized fine and gross motor activities as part of a total education program. He wished to see more practical elements in schooling and regular physical education. The Swedes, Per Henrik Ling and his son Hjalmar Ling and their contributions to the field of school gymnastics, as well as Anders Otto Lindfors' ­ a less well-known Swedish contributor to the field ­ are also analyzed in detail.

One can notice that it was partly influences from abroad ­ mainly in the shape of thoughts about one school for all, and partly a relatively strong domestic tradition, in for example academic dissertations, lectures and literature, that paved the way for the introduction of compulsory physical education in Swedish schools. It was surely no coincidence that the college of physical education (Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet ­ GCI) was started in 1813. Swedens loss of Finland in 1809 awakened nationalistic feelings. P. H. Ling and others spoke about the necessity of a nationalistic awakening that would start by getting back the physical strength of the people. Military service for all men was introduced in 1812 and physical education in the schools was regarded as a good preparation for this. First and foremost four motives legitimatized the introduction of physical education in the Swedish schools at that time:

• Political-nationalistic motives.
  
• Military motives and the connection to the military service for all men.
  
• Health and sanitary motives. Physical education should strengthen the children and make them more resistant to illness.
  
• Recreational motives. Too much time in school was spent in theoretical subjects and physical education should work as a counter-balance for this sedentary life.

Introduction 1813-1860
The first fumbling attempts were taken to introduce compulsory physical education into Swedish schools after a teacher education for physical educators had been started in Stockholm in 1813. This phase was characterized by a lack of material resources, poorly educated teachers and low interest from people in general and especially from politicians. Medical and partly military gymnastics dominated the curriculum. Aims were sanitary and therapeutic. Text-books and guidance for the teachers were very rare and the period was completely dominated by one man's thoughts ­ those of Per Henrik Ling.

Militarization 1860-1890
During this phase the dominance of medical gymnastics was broken and school gymnastics were instead mainly associated with military training. This meant that the physical education of girls was often totally neglected. The subject was institutionalized in both the elementary and grammar school traditions. Physical education consisted to a great extent of gymnastics in the classroom and military drill activities in the school yard with very big groups. Physical education teachers started a union, published a magazine and began to produce literature dealing with questions of teaching method. A more stable teacher education program developed, as did greater interest in school gymnastics ­ at least in the shape that Hjalmar Ling gave it, with "daily exercises" that the teachers had to follow exactly. At the same time an opposition against "Ling-gymnastics" slowly began to emerge.

Stabilization 1890-1912
Physical education stabilized according to the guidelines specified by Hjalmar Ling and Lars Mauritz Törngren, guidelines by which the subject also came to be legitimatized in school. Material resources improved and through the efforts of The College of Physical Education (Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet), who from 1887 were given the task of inspecting physical education in the schools, the subject became entrenched as part of a regular school curriculum. Games were introduced as a part of the subject and different types of sports also made their way into the subject content, partly through the agitation by Viktor Balck and partly as a result of the successful Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912. The military influence decreased quite rapidly, even though fencing was included in the content until 1928 in the upper grades of the "realskola" (academic grammar school). Physical education for girls began slowly to emerge and some women physical educationalists contributed a great deal to this.

Transition 1912-1950
Daily exercises á la Ling still constituted a major part of the content of the subject, but these principles were now being questioned to a greater extent, especially from the physiological side. This marked the beginning of a differentiation of school based physical education activities. Drill was reduced, classes were made smaller and different sporting activities, games and play were given greater attention at the expense of gymnastics. In 1915 the Swedish School Sport Federation was founded and in 1919 the name of the subject was changed in the elementary school from "gymnastics" to "gymnastics with games and sports". In 1928 15-20 "sports days" each schoolyear were introduced. The conception of school gymnastics had changed from just one activity ­ Ling gymnastics, to an umbrella conception including many different kinds of physical activity. However, when the whole Ling system of gymnastics was questioned during the 1940's, it was natural that physical education teachers became uncertain and irresolute.

The domination of physiology 1950-1970
Physiological research began to dominate the theoretical foundations of school based physical activity from the 1950's. However, even "movement and music" increased its space in the curriculum. According to the findings of physiological research, it was argued that the pupils needed three lessons of intense physical activity per week. Aerobic training was emphasized and such activities as bicycle ergometer tests of the pupils became common. In a perhaps oversimplified and even slightly harsh sense, one can say that the main mission of physical education teachers at this time was to make pupils sweat.

A phase of uncertainty 1970-
The last twenty years have involved great changes for school physical education in Sweden and it is probably the school subject that has changed the most during this period. Both content, as well as aims and objectives as specified in the school curriculum, have expanded considerably. The organized sports movement has become more and more directly involved with sports and games inside the school. Perhaps even to the extent that inservice training, the design and provision of teaching materials and the development of curriculum innovations has successively moved camp from the National Board of Education , who now only directly provide a framework for the subject, to the sports movement as it exists outside of the school system. A great many other interest groups ­ for example parents, medical doctors and physiotherapists ­ also make demands upon the content of the subject as well as the way it should be attended to.

Teaching methods have also changed quite dramatically. From being a "teacher centered" activity, pupils are now compelled to take part in active curriculum decision making. However, each physical education teacher still makes a great number of curriculum decisions "himself", thus shaping teaching in "his" own way. It is also a fact that there are great differences in how the subject takes shape in different schools and regions. These partly depend on the teachers personal preferences and partly on "frame factors", that is, on influences on the possibilities for carrying out teaching as prefered. There are fewer regulations for the subject than previously and no criteria for setting grades. Coeducation, in mixed sex mixed ability groups, has become a central tenet for physical education teaching, but central guidance regarding how to carry out such teaching is lacking, as is suitable literature. In light of the difficulties involved in judging the demands and expectations which are currently being put on the P.E. teacher, it is not hard to understand that discussions and debates around the subject are blossoming up constantly, nor that this makes the teacher even more uncertain about the aims and the content of the subject and how to teach it competently. Teachers of physical education today seem to be in the same situation as they were during the 1940's, when the whole Ling gymnastic system was being questioned.

The historical analysis shows how dramatically physical education has been reduced in this country during the 20th century, especially during later decades. At the turn of the century pupils spent almost one lesson a day in physical education, and when "sports days" were introduced in the grammar school in 1928, physical education constituted around 10% of the pupils school time. The 15-20 "sports days" were considered as being a part of the physical education subject and responsibility for them was given to the physical education teacher. If one compares the amount of time spent in physical education today with conditions at the beginning of the century, one can see that there has been a reduction by around 50%. With so few hours spent in physical education it is almost impossible to live up to all the aims specified in the school curriculum.
The analysis also shows that the aims of the subject have changed a great deal through the years, but also that some ­ for example the aim to develop childrens physical abilities ­ of course have always been included. It is interesting to note that political, nationalistic and military aims are no longer identifiably a part of the aims of physical education, neither formally ­ in written prescriptions from the National Board of Education, nor "informally", in the verbal descriptions provided by respondents in this investigation. Even though such motivations were prominent during the 19th century and even at the beginning of this century.

Also absent today are "sanitary and therapeutic" motivations for school sports and gymnastics. Motivations which played a central role in legitimizing the subject when it first emerged as a school subject and first became a regular part of the school curriculum. Even though music, dance and rhythmic gymnastics are common within the subject today, declared aesthetic motives for teaching physical education have almost totally disappeared from the school curriculum (Lgr 80) and from the interviewees comments in this investigation. "Connections between body and soul" and what P. H. Ling called "the homeostatis of human harmony", are not discussed anymore in the curriculum or by persons working with the subject today. Instead one can once again find a greater emphasis upon health-related arguments (or "health-care aims" in modern terminology).

Research on Physical Education
Deliberations over research in and on physical education have indicated that the physical education teacher often has a rather low social and professional status. Physical education is not generally regarded as a high status subject, in the sense that it isn't regarded as containing particularly worthwhile or useful knowledge. The low academic status of the subject would seem to be transfered from the subject to the prestige attached by others to its practitioners professional and academic status. Practical skills are in focus in physical education, gymn-shoes and track-suits are the physical education teachers uniform, theory is generally "low key" or absent from discussions between professionals and the "shop-floor" of school sport ­ the sports-hall, track and field, are associated with high noise levels: each of which are factors normally associated with low status occupations. The fact that teachers in practical-aesthetic subjects like physical education, in Sweden, have had lower pay and more lessons a week than their colleagues from prestigious academic subject departments, has also contributed to the lowering of the physical educators status within the school.

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